Pica Disorder: Causes, Effects and Treatment

Pica Disorder: Causes, Effects and Treatment Introduction This essay will discuss one of the feeding and eating disorder called the Pica Disorder. Specific reference will be made to a clear explanation of the disorder, epidemiology, etiology and clinical features. The essay will also look at the DSM-IV-TR, summarise the key problem areas in Pica DSM-IV-TR classification, pathology and laboratory examination. It will further discuss the differential diagnosis, the prognosis and the treatment. The pica disorder has been recognized and explained since ancient times. The disorder is observed in ethnic groups around the entire world, in both the olden days and recent or modernised cultures; for both male and female and for different age groups. The name of the disorder derives from the Latin term for magpie, a bird known for its unusual indiscriminate eating habits. Pica has also been looked at in other animals such as chimpanzees. The disorder affects everyone but it is most common in young children. It doesn’t only appear on its own, it can manifest in the present of another disorder. Pica is treatable, but when the disorder is ignored, it can lead to death. What is Pica Disorder? Pica is defined as a continuous eating of unhealthy and unbalanced substances for a maximum period of one month (Waugh, Markham, Kreipe Walsh, 2010). There are no characteristics associated with biological disturbances for Pica disorder. Pica is only picked up when there are physical signs that need medical attention such as stomach pains and infections. Pica can also be examined even when the signs appear in the present of another disorder such as autism spectrum, schizophrenia, or intellectual disability. However, the only time Pica can be diagnosed is when it is discovered to be serious and continuous to seek clinical attention (Sadock, Sadock Ruiz, 2015). Pica occurs in children, adolescents and adults. It is recommended by the DSM-5 that the diagnosis of Pica is primarily under the age of two and it is most likely to manifests in children than in adults. Pica appears in both boys and girls or men and women and is sometimes combined with the cultural belief in the spiritual gain of digesting unhealthy food. In this case, a diagnostic of pica is not applicable (Sadock et al., 2015). Pica is also found in mentally disturbed people as well as in pregnant women. In women that are pregnant it is found that it is caused by geophagia (intake of clay) and amylophagia (intake of starch), (Sadock Sadock, 2003). Pica is usually diagnosed after a maximum appearance of one month, but according to the recent DSM-IV criteria, it is not appropriate to children that are still developing and to not look into the fact that children have a habit of sucking and putting objects into mouth. The DSM-5 diagnosis Pica for children under the age of two (chronologically and mentally), with no limitation of older ages; and in adult it is classified as an example of ‘other eating disorder’. Even though the DSM-5 adds Pica as a disorder that often manifests in young children or teenagers, it is obvious in the studies that have been done and reported that Pica is first diagnosed in adults. The persistent induction of Pica being an illness of infants and young children in DSM-5 accredits careful attention in the light of data that has got to do with age of opening and of an identification of the disorder (Waugh et al., 2010). People with mental deficiency or other occurring developmental disorders such as autism, usually get pica as one of the signs of a larger domain of complicated actions. At the moment, DSM-5 criteria states that it is pretty much obvious for one to be diagnosed with pica, if there are an indication of abnormal behaviours and if it is in the present of another mental disorder that it immediately seek clinical or medical attention (Waugh et al., 2010). Pica can be recognized by health professionals. â€Å"Pica can be a manifestation of a range of medical conditions and can lead to a variety of complications including lead and nicotine toxicity, surgical intervention requirements, and parasitic infestation† (Ali, 2001). The literature gives an indication of the epidemiology, etiology and various complications in people suffering from intellectual disorders. The literature also views different medical, cultural and psychological theories that paly a huge role on etiology as well as on various complications. A variety of terms have also been looked at that best describe the occurrence of pica; â€Å"geophagia is the ingestion of clay; coprophagia is the ingestion of faeces; pagophagia refers to the ingestion of ice; and amylophagia is the ingestion of starch† (Ali, 2001). Pica is therefore labelled clearly if one of the terms is identified or is exaggerated in the study of indiscriminate pica (Ali, 2001). Epidemiology Pica has been found to occur in well functioning young and old people, but the majority lies within people who have severe health cases of intellectual disabilities (Bell and Stein, 1990). The popularity of pica is ambiguous. A study of a big clinic population concluded that only 75 percent of infants (12months old) and 15 percent of toddlers (2- to 3-year olds) had put things or objects in their mouth, which is absolutely normal and does not necessarily lead to or cause ingestion (Sadock et al., 2015). Research has concluded that 15 percent of people with serious mental disturbances suffer from pica. However, pica affects both male and female fairly (Sadock Sadock, 2003). Pica has been looked at in three core perspectives: in children, some social contexts as a culturally sanctioned behaviour, and idiosyncratically. Many idiosyncratic reports are made in normal people and in people who suffer from intellectual disability. From infancy till 18 months, pica is regarded as normal because it is a developmental stage where children place substances in their mouth and it is known as physiological pica. For infancy pica is associated with risky substances that are placed in the mouth and with children above 18months, pica may be associated with intellectual abilities or faced stressors (Ali, 2001) Cultural sanctioned pica is associated with clay eating in the African contexts and it is also found to be the most common in pregnant women. Many pregnant women reported that they are consuming clay and some reported that they consume it on different occasions. Pica is observed in normal functioning individuals and intellectual disability people. Research looks primarily on people suffering from other chronic disorders such as dementia on old people as well as people with unbalanced diets (malnutrition). Research found that pica is serious in intellectual people, however it decreases with age but manifests heavily after the age of 70 (Ali, 2001). Pica is also found to create problems in social interactions for people suffering from the disorder, usually children would undergo social experiences such shyness, loneliness, and feeling inferior (Troop Bifulco, 2002). Etiology Many theorists have been asked to explain the abnormalities of pica and none of their ideas have been credited. There’s a major possibility of pica occurring in the person with families that show significant signs of the disorder. Absence of well-balanced substances has been speculated to be the major contributing factor to pica; often the desire to consume substances that are not healthy arises from dietary deficiencies. This is usually the desire to have ice or unhealthy substances which are known to be linked with the lack of iron and zinc. A common case of caregivers abandoning and deprival has been linked with many incidents of pica (Sadock Sadock, 2003). The reason for not having any care for infants and toddlers, as well as lack of sufficient feeding, leads to high risk of pica (Sadock et al., 2015). The features and incidents of pica are found to be too complex to only be revealed as one sign or cause. Pica is not showing to be a â€Å"disease† as such but rather a symptom that can occur in various physical and psychological problems. Etiology of pica is found in psychological, cultural, and medical theories (Ali, 2001). Psychological Theories Pica can be classified as a learned behaviour from people suffering from intellectual disorders, as they couldn’t differentiate between appropriate substances to consume and inappropriate substances. This is however contradicted by the look of things from people who compiled a research on hostile people concentrating on a certain substance to ingest. From other psychological theories, this is taken as a type of aggression. Pica is found to be higher in communities with little interaction among the society (Ali, 2001). Cultural Theories Geophagia is the main cause of pica associated to cultural theories. Consuming clay seems to be normal in most African people. Eating clay has been used as a method of detoxification. Clay is used as traditional remedies in most societies; also used for healing other infections such syphilis, increasing breast milk production and guiding the birth procedure (Ali, 2001). Medical Theories Medical theories look at a variety of components that cause pica disorder. These causes are the role of mineral status and nutrition, neurological or neurotransmitter pathology and psychiatric disorders and the addictive quality of the substance digested. There are lost sources to the correlation of lack of iron and pica. There’s confusion in the literature on whether pica disorder causes the lack of minerals, or if the lack of minerals is the result of pica. The idea of the lack of minerals, particularly lack of iron is the result of pica regarded as â€Å"nutrient hypothesis†. According to this hypothesis, pica is regarded as the responded actions to the deficiency. The proof in the context is found in past medical records and cases that have been reported. Lack of zinc has also been found to be the cause of pica. â€Å"Alternatively, the view that pica could cause a mineral deficiency is based on the observation that certain clays have chelating properties, that is they bind the mineral and hence prevent its absorption† (Ali, 2001). It has been displayed that eating clay can prevent the intake of elemental iron. Diagnosis and Clinical Features Having intakes of inappropriate substances continuously for a period of 18 months of age is not normal, even though DSM-5 considers under 2years for a diagnosis of pica. Actions of the disorder may start in infants 12months to 24 months of age. Certain things that are digested may differ with their approachability, and they expand with the child’s ability of progression and the resultant increased autonomy and induced parental care. Infants may put things like hair, cloth, paint etc. in their mouth, while toddlers on the other hand may digest things like animal feces, dirt, small stones and paper. The substances that children digest may cause clinical complications and can be harmful to the individual. Other sever implications are lead poisoning from consuming lead-based paint, intestinal parasites after eating soil or feces, lack haemoglobin and lack of zinc after eating of clay, serious lack of iron after eating of larger portions of starch, and internal pains from digestion of hair balls, stones and gravel. Pica during pregnancy is often less to the pregnancy on its own (Sadock et al., 2015) Summary of Key Problem Areas in Pica in DSM-IV-TR Classification Pica manifest beyond the age domain implying its induction in the categorizing system has to be considered again. Its manifestation in older people is built in the present of its choice of words (e.g. the describing of schizophrenia in criteria), but it’s not apparent at the same time to the clinician based on the induction in the system. There are some considerations that pica might be best described as the â€Å"obsessive-compulsive spectrum disorder†. This consideration derives from the proof regarding the reaction to SSRI’s, and looking at compulsive, anxiety relieving components of the eating disorder. There’s a consideration that there may be two core types: â€Å"voluntary and involuntary†. This suggestion is not yet looked into and there’s some sort of proof that they will fall into subgroups. There must be changes on the induction of pica in the classification scheme so that it is not placed under the Feeding and Eating Disorder of I nfancy or Early Childhood (Waugh et al., 2010) Pathology and Laboratory Examination There has been no experiments showing a diagnosis of pica, but many experiments done in the lab are valuable as pica is usually linked with unnatural levels of lead. Levels of iron and zinc in serum must be established and rectified if little. In unusual instances when it is the causes, pica may vanish when oral iron and zinc are conducted. Haemoglobin level must be established to exclude anemia (sadock et al., 2015). Differential Diagnosis The various diagnosis of pica covers the avoidance of food, anorexia, or unusual lack of iron and zinc. Pica may happen in connection with a downfall to prosper, and be a dual diagnosis with schizophrenia, autism spectrum disease and kleine-Levin syndrome. Young ones also indicate unusual actions, involving the swallowing of toilet water, garbage and other unhealthy staff. Lead intoxication may be linked with pica. In terms of children who illustrate pica that requires clinical attention, along with another present disorder, both disorders must be coded based on the DSM-5 (Sadock et al., 2015). Course and Prognosis The prognosis of Pica is often well and, in children that are intellectually functioning, pica settles concurrently with several months. In young children, pica often undertakes with increasing age; in pregnant women pica is reduced due to the pregnancy and in adults, pica may continue for many years especially those suffering from autism and intellectual disabilities. Investigations on these people are too little to make valid conclusions (Sadock et al., 2015). The prognosis for people with pica differs, based on the kind and amount of substance taken, the extent of visible side effects and problems of pica may be turned back and if not treated, it may result to death (Encyclopaedia of Children’s Health, n.d.) Treatment When seeking for pica treatment, the first thing to be done is to look into the cause of pica at all times. When Pica manifest as malnutrition and lack of child supervision, it’s obvious that these incidents are avoided or stopped. There must also be an elimination of toxic substances such lead. No direct treatment available for pica as such, often treatment tries to achieve giving people lessons and modification of actions. Treatment includes various angles such psychosocial, environmental, behavioural and family supervision approaches. When lead is in the same environment as the child, it is only appropriate for the child to taken to a different surrounding. Behavioural shaping as well as behavioural models has been used to calm the disorder. Higher parental care, stimulation and emotional supervision will lead to positive outcomes. Research found that pica occurred from poor areas, and some sick people, rectifying the lack of iron and zinc removes pica. Medical conditions s uch lead poisoning must also be given medical attention (Sadock et al., 2015). Treatment of pica will rely on the etiology and the kind of pica. Conventional medical treatment may be relevant to some cases. For instance, certain pills with iron-containing vitamin have been proven to reduce the cause of seldom desires of substances to individuals who lack iron. Pica does not have exposed medical etiology in most instances; therefore it would be wise to utilize various methods of treatment such as therapy, psychoeducation, and ways to maintain good health (Encyclopaedia of Children’s Health, n.d.) Behavioural Treatments for Pica Self-Protection Device Self-protective devices (SPD’s) are used to get rid of any chance of getting into contact with pica. SDP’s include bags or jackets that cover the arms and helmets that prevent an opportunity to the person’s mouth. Overcorrection Overcorrection methods are used to educate appropriate actions through overestimated actions. Overcorrection involves the unforeseen circumstances of one of the following: Oral hygiene: people must brush their teeth for certain duration with a toothbrush immersed in a mildly aversive mixture. Personal Hygiene: people must be careful and also wash their hands, face and anus. Tidying: people must keep their places clean and empty rubbish bins. (Bell and Stein, 1990) Behaviour Treatment Programmes Treatment programmes involves hierarchal interventions, starting with positive support for substitution of behaviour. Various supports of possible and various supports of other behaviours are in all programmes; these include visual screening with goggles, personal hygiene, and unpredicted restraint (Williams, Sanchez, Enzinna, Dunn Karasack., 2009). Prevention The prevention methods of pica are unknown. As soon as the disorder is found or suspected, certain steps in reducing the symptoms are considered. Getting rid of a certain substance from readily available places may be wise. A person with pica may need to be under supervision to be able to avoid inappropriate behaviours (Encyclopaedia of Children’s Health, n.d.). Conclusion In conclusion, pica is a disorder that manifests after a continuous eating of non-nutritive substances for a maximum period of one month. The diagnosis is usually under two years of age according to the DSM-5 diagnosis criteria. Pica affects both male and female and it sometimes appears in the present of another disorder such as autism spectrum, schizophrenia and intellectual disorders. Pica is usually diagnosed after a maximum appearance of one month, but according to the recent DSM-IV criteria, it is not appropriate to children that are still developing and to not look into the fact that children have a habit of sucking and putting objects into mouth. People who suffer from pica are usually the ones that have severe health cases of intellectual disorders. It can be caused by various things and it is found in cultural, psychological and medical theories. There are various ways to treat the symptoms of pica, however, no prevention has been found for pica but the disorder can be reduc ed using various methods. Comparison of Ageing Policies: Australia and Canada Comparison of Ageing Policies: Australia and Canada The young disabled children should be provided with the special schools. The rights should be ensured for the disabled people. The disabled people should be given the employment options. Policies on aging in Australia As the populace in Australia ages there will be changes in expansive zones and an immense scope of issues should have been tended to. These include: A developing interest for matured consideration administrations and astounding and fitting wellbeing. The requirement for practical and sufficient measure of pay to backing the retirement living. The requirement for positive group disposition and individual for maturing. The requirement for backing from the group and base which is age-accommodating and the Australians to empower to stay joined and take part in the general public. The significance of more established individuals to stay free and sound for whatever length of time that conceivable. The objective for Australians national procedure for maturing is to convey all Australians with the best results paying little mind to age. It is the reaction for the national system which is the structure to the open doors and difficulties which will show the more established Australia. It is a vehicle which will draw in the Australian group in the administration which is continuous by the legislature of ward. POLICIES OF AGING IN CANADA : Canada has been a dynamic member and a pioneer in the usage and improvement for the rules for groups and urban communities which is age-accommodating. World Health Organization in 2007 added to the rules for urban areas which is age-accommodating and upheld by authorities and Canadian government subsidizing association. The national system for maturing under the government: Verify that maturing individuals have helpful and auspicious access to the expert health awareness they require. Build sheltered and powerful meds solution for seniors. Unite regions and procurements for the entrance to superb and home care administrations. To guarantee that relatives and companions have fitting backings on a casual premise who deal with their more seasoned friends and family. Build up a national wellbeing system with the collaboration of the areas to expand speculation and enhance support for parental figures. Similarities Both Australian and Canadian government are submitted in serving the maturing populace independent of their ethnic and social foundation. Both governments plan to organize a superior care crosswise over social and wellbeing administrations, and also diminish the weight on the frameworks of human services and bolster the individuals with solid maturing. Both governments permit their maturing populace to age effortlessly in their decision of homes climate it is a retirement town or their private homes. Both Australian and Canadian government gives reasonable lodging offers to the maturing individuals which is helpful in meeting the more established people groups evolving needs. Concerning their job strategies both nations have very comparative methodology like upgrade motivating forces so that more seasoned specialists can stay in workforce for more period. The data accessible to the people about their qualifications later on ought to be made strides DIFFERENCES : Both Australia and Canada use different instrument to understand and screen the current situation of their developing people. While Australia sees the home based thought maintained by the gathering to be a useful step for more settled people, the Canadian government pick pleasing hotel as an open entryway for acquisition of cabin especially for developing people. In Canada the advantages capability for more settled people is 65 years anyway it can be affirmed even at 60 years of age yet in Australia more prepared people can work in their old age in light of the way that the Australian government see the upsides of using more prepared people and assigned a boss for age isolation who advocates the benefits of more settled workers. Policies that operate in New Zealand (aging) New Zealands vision of positive ageing is where older people are recognised and are highly valued as an integral part of communities and their families. According to the positive ageing strategy which provides a framework for understanding and developing policy for positive ageing reflects the experiences and attitudes older people have about themselves and how todays younger generations view ageing which includes their own ageing. The strategy for positive ageing in New Zealand identifies ten goals for older people. Ageing in the community: older people to feel secure and safe and can age gracefully in their community. Income: adequate and secure income for older people. Housing: appropriate and affordable housing choice for older people. Health: accessible, timely, equitable, and affordable health care services for older people. Positive attitudes: all aged people should have positive attitudes to older people and ageing people. Rural services: older people who are living in the rural communities should not be disadvantaged while accessing the services. Employment opportunities: promotion of flexible working options and elimination of ageism. Cultural diversity: a range of appropriate cultural services allows older people to choose. Transport: appropriate and affordable options for the transport for older people. Opportunities for participation and personal growth: increase in opportunities for community participation and personal growth. Comparing the policies with New Zealand Australia and Canada have practically comparative approaches on work opportunities, wellbeing and lodging as New Zealand as to maturing. New Zealand has set a procedure arrangement for their maturing populace thus has Australia and Canada. Every one of the three nations addresses reasonableness without segregation. All the policies concentrated on providing the better facilities of the people of old age. Service Delivery Policies on disability in Australia Department of health National disability agreement funds a range of services under the Australian government which is related to disability. These services are designed to improve the lives of people who are suffering from disability and the service providers ensures that the people with disability have the opportunity to participate in their communities. The disability service commission is one such organization in Australia which is a government agency who is responsible for program development, policy and service planning which affects the needs and rights of Australians with disabilities. Service include: Individual and family support. Respite support for carers. Community based support and accommodation. Vocational development and post school skills. Equipment and aids. Resources to create a community which is accessible DEPARTMENT OF SOCIAL SERVICES Disability and carers support people who are suffering from disability through services and programs and also with payments and benefits. Disability and carers also help with mental health in Australia. Support are also provided through funding and grants for organisations who deliver services to people with mental health and disability. Service Delivery Policies on Disability in Canada Ministry of community and social services Under the ministry of community and social services program it helps people who are suffering from financial help for housing and food and living expenses. Ministry for social development and social innovation It provides assistance and employment programs for people with disabilities. The Canadian government offers a range of financial benefits and services to assist their family members and the people with disabilities. Service delivery policies in New Zealand on disability International Service Delivery Policy on Disability in New Zealand. Service delivery in New Zealand in Disability. The Ministry of Health The service of wellbeing has two principle parts with respect to the procurement of handicap bolster administration. The principal part is to give strategy counsel to the administration on the way of scope of requirements RHAs are obliged to address and second part is to screen the RHA consistence and execution with their agreement with the legislature. Core Service Committee The National Advisory Committee on center wellbeing and inability backing gives autonomous approach counsel to the Minister and the to the national warning advisory group on wellbeing and handicap on the accompanying matters: Public wellbeing issues, including fundamental the soundness of individuals and council. The advancement of general wellbeing The checking of general wellbeing Any different matters the national warning council on wellbeing and inability determines by the notification to the committee. Public Health Commission The general wellbeing commission was situated up to enhance and ensure the strength of New Zealand individuals. The commissions parts are to screen and investigate the condition of general wellbeing, counsel the priest of wellbeing on general wellbeing objectives, techniques and strategies, and buy general wellbeing administration. Comparing the policies (New Zealand) with the policies of Canada and Australia The service delivery policies in Canada focuses on the social life of the people with disability. They wanted to improve the lifestyle of the disabled people in accordance to their life in the society. On the other hand the policies of Australia and New Zealand were concentrated on the physical well being as well as the social well being of the person with disability. Service delivery policies of Australia on Aging; In order to make the life of aged people in Australia more comfortable and better, the kangaroo government has made many policies for them. Some of them are as follows: Residential cares : The government has established the number of aged cares centres in order to provide the best cares for the people in aged people. They are given the home based environment so that they can spend the rest of their life in peace and in comfortable manner. Home and Community Care (HACC): HACC administrations will be consumed into the Home Support Program, HACC administrations will be consumed into the Home Support Program, together with the National Respite for Carers program, Assistance with Care and Housing for the Aged, and Day Therapy Centres. HACC administration sorts, arranging areas and unit estimating will be explored, and another national charges strategy will be presented. Appraisal procedures will be audited, with an aim to adjusting together with the National Respite for Carers program, Assistance with Care and Housing for the Aged, and Day Therapy Centre. HACC administration sorts, arranging areas and unit estimating will be explored, and another national charges strategy will be presented. Appraisal procedures and will be audited, with an aim to adjusting. Role of social workers: The Australian Association of Social Workers (AASW) is the main national association for social workers in Australia, with more than 7,000 individuals, a large number of whom are included in the conveyance of matured consideration and carer bolster benefits in a scope of fields of work on including direct administration conveyance, promotion, administration arranging, administration, administration improvement and approach. Other social labourers are included in supporting more seasoned individuals in numerous different territories of practice connected with the social work calling including wellbeing, lodging, pay bolster, backing to Indigenous Australians, inability, workforce support and group advancement. Service delivery policies in Canada for aging: Some of the policies by the government of Canada for the people of old age are given below: Canadas retirement income system The retirement salary framework in Canada comprises of three columns two open and one private. Canadas two open benefits programs, Old Age Security and the Canada/Quebec Pension Plans, guarantee a base level of salary in retirement for Canadian seniors. The private column comprises of assessment conceded retirement funds in head honcho supported enlisted annuity arranges (RPPs) and individual enrolled retirement reserve funds arranges (RRSPs). The expense deferral gave on investment funds in these arrangements urges Canadians to put something aside for retirement to help keep up preretirement ways of life. Other money related help is accessible to seniors through the pay charge framework. Case in point, the Age Credit and the Pension Income Credit diminish the measure of assessment seniors owe. Old Age Security (OAS) OAS advantages give fundamental salary to Canadian nationals and inhabitants who meet age, habitation and legitimate status prerequisites. It is financed from Government of Canada general incomes and listed quarterly to the Consumer Price Index. Perceiving the troublesome monetary circumstances confronted by numerous seniors, OAS gives extra pay tried advantages for low-salary people through the Guaranteed Income Supplement (GIS), the Allowance and the Allowance for the Survivor. The GIS is a month to month advantage accessible to OAS beneficiaries with practically zero other wage. The measure of the advantage is subordinate upon conjugal status, home and salary. The Allowance is accessible to qualified 60 to 64 year-old companions and basic law accomplices of OAS/GIS beneficiaries. The Allowance for the Survivor is accessible to low-pay people matured 60 to 64 whose mate or regular law accomplice is expired and who neither remarried nor went into a typical law relationship. Canada Pension Plan (CPP) The CPP is together represented by Canadas elected and common governments and works all through Canada, with the exception of in Quebec that has its own tantamount arrangement. The CPP accommodates a mixed bag of advantages in light of life changes. Best known for its retirement benefits, the CPP likewise gives advantages to surviving accomplices and offspring of CPP donors, individuals with handicaps and their youngsters and an one-time most extreme advantage of $2,500 in the occasion of death. It is a contributory arrangement; supporters are representatives or independently employed persons between the ages of 18 and 70 who gain no less than a base sum amid a logbook year. Advantages are computed in light of how much and for to what extent a giver has paid into the CPP. The service delivery policies for aging in New Zealand Ministry of Health (New Zealand) The Governments principal advisor on health and disability: improving, promoting and protecting the health of all New Zealanders. They provide home support care services, residential care services and funding for special services. District Health Board District health boards (DHBs) are in charge for providing or funding the running of health services in their region. Disability and elderly support services and some health services are subsidized and obtained nation-wide by the Ministry of Health. Ministry of Social Development The Ministry of Social Development deals with various services for seniors. This is a complete means to describe these services and provide you with appropriate contact information, for instance rest homes and hospital. SuperGold Card Once you have been approved of New Zealand Superannuation the elderly over 65 years of age will be automatically send a Super Gold card. It provides discounts and gives a range of government and businesses concessions for example free off-peak public transport and including discounted services from the local council. The Residential Care Subsidy The Ministry of Health decides that if you get a Residential Care Subsidy, the following things needs to be present in order to qualified for a residential care subsidy, if you are considered for needing an long –term residential care in a rest home or hospital, if you need the care for an unlimited time, if the rest home or the hospital is approved and if you are 65 years or older and if you are below the age of 65 years than there are conditions that would apply. Also it depends on your spouse income or any asset that your partner may be having. Comparing the policies of these countries on aging: The policies of all the countries focused on providing the better facilities for the people with old age regarding their health and social life. In Australia the main point of focus was to provide the care in terms of their health and society. The Canada’s government is mainly concentrated on proving the better financial facilities for the people of old age. The policies of New Zealand mainly concentrated on proving the better facilities for the people in terms of their medications and lifestyle.

Moses Mendelsohn and the Religious Enlightenment

â€Å"His life our standard, his teaching our light† Isaac Euchel wrote about Moses Mendelssohn. Moses was a model for Jews in Germany during the late 1770’s, and a dominant figure in the emergence of the Haskalah. The Haskalah borrowed many forms and categories from the already existing European Enlightenment, but its contents were largely derived from medieval Jewish philosophy and biblical exegesis. Within the novel, Moses Mendelssohn and the Religious Enlightenment, David Sorkin conveys how Moses made the German Enlightenment compatible with Judaism, and shows Moses to be a more consistent thinker than previously believed; his views on Judaism, natural laws, and natural rights developed early and remained consistent throughout his lifetime. Sorkin accounts Moses’ contributions to Jewish thought in three successive phases: philosophical, exegetical, and political. First, in the philosophical phase, Sorkin reveals the foundations of Moses’ thought. At an early age, Moses read the bible, memorized passages, studied Hebrew grammar, and wrote biblical poetry. All of these activates later were key in the Haskalah. In 1743, at fourteen, Moses moved to Berlin, which was at the center of the German Enlightenment, and theorist Christian Wolff was a dominating influence. Wolff’s focus was to natural theology, where he accounted that God's existence and attributes were the basis for theology and ethics. Influenced by Wolff, Moses sought to apply these Wolffian concepts to Judaism. Moses used his own version of Wolffian philosophy as a means to articulate his full belief in revealed religion. For example, he alluded that God was the source of all perfection and thus the source of metaphysics and natural theology. He thought that Enlightenment philosophy and Judaism complemented each other, and that philosophy served Judaism as an instrument of self-articulation. As a result, he began to write philosophical works in German, and Jewish works in Hebrew. Most important during the start of his career, he introduced a distinction between practical and theoretical in philosophy, which was also influenced by Wolff. Moses stressed a Jew’s primary obligation is â€Å"torah and good deeds†, not philosophical contemplation. To Moses, revelation set distinct limitation on theoretical knowledge, so he concentrated no practical knowledge, which was usually later seen in the form of commentary, since commentary was seen as the legitimate form through which truth is approached. Moses’ early Hebrew works were commentaries in which he attempted to renew the tradition of philosophy in Hebrew, again using ideas from Wolffian philosophy. His first work, The Kohelet Musar, was the first modern journal in Hebrew. Another subject he addresses is the concept of an ideal personality, which was in terms of ones individuals’ relationship to God and his fellowman. To Moses, the ideal is the â€Å"man of faith† who combines religious study, honest occupation, family, and trust in god. Also, in Moses’ early works, he argued the importance of the study of the Hebrew language and the bible. In a commentary on Maimonides’ Logical Terms, he insisted without Torah and tradition, we are â€Å"like a blind man in the dark†, and the true path to knowledge is the combination of torah and logic. Continuing the Wolffian beliefs, Moses asserted that although things might look accidental to man, to God they are all necessary. His early works such as The Kohelet Musar and Logical Terms were both commentaries that embodied Wolfian principles. However, The Book of the Soul, was different in the regard that it was a freestanding philosophical work that Moses withheld from publication. In Moses’ early works, Sorkin notes that the lack of any original content is significant. According to Sorkin, the conclusion of Moses’ philosophical career was with the Lavater affair in 1769-1770. By the end of the 1760’s, Moses’ philosophical position was established and would remain until the end of his life. He created a public dualism by publishing philosophical works in only German, and commentaries on Jewish subject in Hebrew. The Lavater affair contested Moses to support all of his fundamental ideas. Johann Caspar Lavater, a Swiss Protestant pastor infamously challenged Moses to refute the arguments of the theologian, Charles Bonnet, or convert to Christianity, which Lavater referred as a â€Å"Golden Bridge† to Christianity. However, this posed a public challenge to Moses as a philosopher and as a Jew. In response, Moses publically defended toleration on religious and philosophical grounds, but in private, he wrote counterattacks and criticized Christianity. This task was not simple, and he again used Wolffian principles help justify that Judaism was in perfect harmony with natural religion and reason. Sorkin interprets that Moses drove Lavater to end the affair, and made him isolate from the public, and Sorkin named this â€Å"the triumph of toleration†. Although Moses overcame Lavater, the affair also had grave consequences on Moses personally; the affair aggravated his physical and psychological condition. He was a hunchback, and developed a nervous debility, which was linked to his deformity, prevented abstract thinking and grew much worse during this Lavater affair. The next period of Moses’ career, Sorkin names Exegesis, where he focused on making the bible vital to the Haskalah. First, Moses created a commentary on Ecclesiastes that is part of â€Å"wisdom literature,† and thus was able to reiterate his preference of practical knowledge. He constructed a defense of Jewish exegesis on the basis of language, and strived to show how there are multiple meanings, which are reasonable. He said, â€Å"there are four methods of interpreting our holy torah-the literal, homiletical, allegorical, and esteric†, proving that words can bear multiple intentions. Also, in his commentary, Moses introduced divisions that did not follow the traditional chapters and verses in the bible, because he argued that traditional divisions were intended for the â€Å"convenience of the reader†. Another interesting aspect Moses brought up in Ecclesiastes, was that the idea that truth was universal and neutral, whatever its origins, meaning he deemed it permissible to use non-Jewish exegesis. Lastly, in this commentary, language was of importance because Moses used German translations in Hebrew characters, giving equivalents with entire sentence. Sorkin believes he did this to him, Hebrew was the ideal medium for the spread of the practical knowledge, in which laid the essence of Judaism. This Ecclesiastes commentary placed him at the head of the Haskalah’s efforts to revive biblical exegesis. Next, Moses worked for thirteen years on his translation on the Psalms, with the goal of producing an exegesis document of natural religion, translated in German, and would be source of practical knowledge for Jews and Christians. Sorkin brings attention to how Moses uses the term â€Å"edification† in reference to the Psalms, which emphasizes his desire for an exegesis that would encourage universal religiosity. In the Psalms, Moses asserts that the sublime is a form of art, and the highest form of beauty. Moses thus disagrees with the idea that God is â€Å"the most sublime being† because he believed that the sublime was not natural, but artistic, existing as a human creation. Furthermore, he affirms that the sublime’s aesthetic impact is admiration, and its spiritual impact is edification. Unfortunately, the translation of the Psalms was only a success among the Jews, and others stated that, â€Å"nothing could be further from the truth. † Sorkin viewed this as a confirmation that Moses’ best medium is commentary, not translation. During the same thirteen years that Moses translated the Psalms, he also translated, commented, and wrote an extensive introduction to the Pentateuch, titled Book of the Paths to Peace. This translation aimed to convey a literal meaning of the text through a fluent German translation. While Moses remained the key contributor, he had four Maskilim participate, and this made a shift in the Haskalah. This book is divided into three themes: practical knowledge, literal meaning, and the use of history. In the first part of the Book of Paths to Peace, Moses viewed the Pentateuch as the primary source of practical knowledge for the Jews. Sorkin noticed he repeatedly argues â€Å"virtue must be made into a â€Å"second nature† by the continual exercise of moral judgment. Moses asserted that compared to the rest of humanity Israel had a special role, because those who reside in there all â€Å"believe† and the bible is a handbook of practical knowledge. Also, in the Pentateuch, Moses wrote â€Å"man is by nature and social and will not achieve success without help from others of his kind†. Interesting, Moses stressed that God created everything, and he that he is beyond nature, and thus â€Å"science† had no place in a commentary on Creation, which further showed his resistance to theoretical knowledge. Sorkin again demonstrated how Moses kept consistent in his views, since practical knowledge already played in other works. The next portion emphasized the literal meaning as the focus of exegesis. Due to the bible being the primary source of practical knowledge, the need to make its literal meaning known was vital for Moses. His basic premise was that the Bible had a unique oral quality that made it the most effective means of transmitting practical knowledge. He stressed the importance of grammar, and believed only with knowledge of grammar, does Gods’ word both literal and homiletical make sense, because grammar is essential to the tradition of Jewish scriptural transmission. It is this tradition that prevents the Jews from being â€Å"like a blind man in the dark,† and Sorkin points out that Moses used the same metaphor here as he did with Logical Terms. Moses believed that due to the structure of biblical poetry, that it was the most successful method for teaching practical knowledge. The last portion of the Book of the Paths to Peace, Moses established and defended his belief in Judaism through history. History helped establish Moses’ faith. Sorkin alluded that Moses was historical without being historicist, because he recognized history in the Pentateuch rather than the Pentateuch as a product of history. Sorkin notes that viewing history in this fashion was integral to the Haskalah and typical of the religious enlightenment. The Book of the Paths to Peace eventually had wide acceptance, even though some attacked the book. The book was meant to instruct Jewish youth, but since Moses used complex German, it forced students to concentrate on that language instead of the contents. Lastly, The final phase Sorkin accounts for in Moses’ life is his political activism. Moses was politically involved almost his entire career as a thinker and writer. Now, he focused on the state and individual rights from the viewpoint of a Jew living in hardships. Continuing the Wolffian philosophy, he emphasized a politics based on ideas of natural rights to promote legal equality. Initially, Moses arrived in the political arena by being an intercessor. Sorkin found this unsurprising since Moses was a philosopher and writer. Communities sought Moses in times of conflict, and usually Moses’ intercession was successful. For example, the Duke in the community of Mecklenburg prohibited the Jewish practice of early burial. Moses was asked to help, so he served as an intercessor, and the duke granted the Jews the privilege of religious liberty. However, Moses took this matter further, by trying to renew the ritual practice, just as he tried to renew the traditions of philosophy and exegesis. In 1777, Moses transitioned from the politics of intercession to the politics of emancipation, when he responded to the community of Dresden’s problem of Jew’s facing high taxation or expulsion. Moses’ letter asserted that Jews were being excluded from society because of their religion. His work, The Ritual Laws of the Jews was seen as an integral part of his Jewish thought, and referred to as a handbook on practical knowledge. Later, Moses took on dealing with Jewish rights. Sorkin implies that Moses’ advocacy of rights was fundamentally new, yet there was also substantial continuity with his earlier thought. Moses demonstrated that history plays an even more important role in his political thinking than in his biblical exegesis since human liberties were the issue rather than divine work. In order to understand Jews’ situation in terms of rights, Moses translated Rousseau’s Discourse. Moses maintained a balance between individual rights and absolutist state, and asked Christian Wilhelm Dohm to write a tract advocating emancipation of the Jews, and it was widely influential. Moses wrote an elaborate preface to the translation of Rousseau’s Discourse, which was divided into three parts, and titled Vindiciae Judaeorum. In the preface, it was the first time he publicly advocated â€Å"civic acceptance† or equal rights. An occurring theme in the preface was Moses expressing what he did not agree with Dohm’s memorandum, specifically with Dohm’s ban of excommunication. Moses deemed that religious excommunication invaded on civil rights because it involved the political authorities. Since he denied religion’s right to excommunicate, he was set apart from the mainstream of that scholarship. A month after he published Vindiciae Judaeorum, he also published his translation of the Psalms. The Psalms received little attention, while Vindiciae had a huge impact. A pamphlet appeared criticizing Moses’ work, but it was published as a famous Austrian statesman in order to be taken seriously, but truly, a minor writer August Cranz wrote it. Cranz posed more of a challenge to Moses’ faith than the Lavater’s affair; Moses had to realize that Christianity was the true religion and prepare to convert or admit Judaism was imperfect and in need of fundamental reform. Moses reacted to Cranz’s pamphlet by creating Jerusalem, or On Religious Power and Judaism, which Sorkin views as Moses’ fullest elaboration of his views on rights and the nature of Judaism. Jerusalem is divided into two parts; part one addresses Cranz’ contention that in â€Å"repudiating the ban of excommunication, he had repudiated Judaism. Moses argues mainly on the basis of natural rights. Moses’ theory of church and state is rooted in his idea of benevolence. He thought the best state was one whose members were able to govern themselves through education, and the institution capable of providing such education was religion. Moses also went back to Wolffian principle of metaphysics by asserting that liberty of conscience was crucial for the achievement of man’s eternal vocation. In part two, Moses addressed Cranz’s view that Moses left Judaism, and abandoned religion altogether. Moses answered using philosophical views, and switched between his exposition of Judaism and a digression of a specific subject to advance his argument, and to continue his method of writing German philosophy in German, and Judaism in Hebrew. He argued on the basis of revealed legislation. He stated that Judaism is a religion of revealed legislation, not of revealed beliefs. He asserted that only through a second revelation, comparable to the one at Sinai, could God establish the authority necessary to introduce changes into the practice of the law. The two parts of Jerusalem, fit closely together, since many of the themes developed in part one are discussed in part two. To conclude Sorkin’s argument, Moses was a traditional Jewish figure who sought to renew traditional philosophy and Biblical exegesis in Hebrew. Sorkin successfully displayed how Moses made the German Enlightenment compatible with the Haskalah, and stayed constant with his philosophy throughout his life. It is only normal that after reading Sorkin’s Moses Mendelssohn and the Religious Enlightenment that certain parts were more striking than others. Not only are certain aspects of the book especially intriguing, but also, I do not agree with certain theories that Moses posed. Also, I cannot help but compare the Haskalah to the European Enlightenment that preceded it. First, it is miraculous how one person can make a difference in others lives. Moses lived during a time where Jewish communities were suffering from not having equal rights in society. Jews were denied education, certain occupations, citizen status, and were the first ones to be held responsible for problems or crimes. The fact that Moses, with his short stature and hunchback, still had the confidence and ability to make reforms in society is unbelievable. Sorkin only mentioned Moses’ deformity once, and it is of graver importance than that. People who are blessed without any deformities take for granted how easy their life is, and I believe that more acknowledgements should be given to Moses for enduring such a struggle. Also, in Sorkin’s reference to Moses’ deformity, he also mentioned a nervous debility that was linked to his abnormality, which prevented conceptual thinking, and grew worse after the Lavater affair. The fact that this was only mentioned once, and in one quick sentence gives the impression that this was not a serious issue. However, if such a physiological condition occurred in Moses, one would think that since all of his works entailed abstract thinking, since he was a philosopher, that this would have severe consequences on his career. Yet, Moses was able to produce numerous works after the Lavater affair and many of them were highly praised. It makes one speculate, if Sorkin’s information about Moses’ nervous disability is completely accurate. Another part of the book that caught my attention was the aftermath of Christian Wilhelm Dohm’s publication of On the Civic Amelioration of the Jews, even though he was doing Moses a favor by writing it, and it provoked a major debate that made the rights of Jews a public issue, which is what Moses wanted. However, Sorkin displayed many aspects that Moses did not agree with what Christian wrote. For instance, Moses took issue with the notion that artisanry and farming are the sole sources of wealth, and with the ban of excommunication. Moses affirmed that no one could legitimately claim to exercise authority over another’s belief. Sorkin’s writing gave the impression that Moses was angry with Christian for putting certain beliefs in writing. This caught me by surprise because I was under the impression that Christian and Moses were good friends. The fact that Christian agreed to write this document, even though Moses was asked to write it, implied that they were in agreement with what was to be written. The way that Sorkin addressed this conflict in the book further suggests that Christian went against what Moses asked of him, and used this as an opportunity to voice his own opinions on the issue of Jewish emancipation. Furthermore, in a way, one can view Christian as being a catalyst for Cranz’s challenge. The connection is that Christian published work that Moses felt the need to counter in Vindiciae Judaeorum, and thus gave rise to Cranz challenging Moses. Additionally, I discovered that certain areas in the book negated Moses’ entire goal of the Haskalah. First, it is important to recall that prior to the rise of the Haskalah, most Christian thinkers thought Judaism was an irrational dark religion that did not allow for the age of Enlightenment. Hence gave rise to the premise that Jews were incapable of reaching such intellectual levels. Interestingly, Sorkin and Moses both acted in ways that confirm this idea. First, Moses published philosophy in German and commentaries in Hebrew. This action can be seen as if he was making it harder for Jews to reach an enlightened state. By publishing philosophy in German, which most Jews could not read, he further separated them from society. Also, not only were his philosophical works in German, but also they were in such a high level of German, that was very rare for a Jew to be able to write at this level. This also made it harder for Jews to understand his German works. Another instance is seen when the translation of the Psalms was only a victory among the Jews, and while non-Jews stated, â€Å"nothing could be further from the truth. † Sorkin viewed this as a confirmation that Mendelssohn’s best medium is commentary, not translation. Two things are happening in this situation. First, the reaction from society demonstrates that indeed the Jews are not as intelligent as the non-Jews because they thought Moses’ commentary was brilliant, when the majority of the population thought it was not legitimate to be a valid translation. Second, Sorkin’s account that Moses’ best means is commentary, shows that Sorkin is agreeing with the statement that his translation did not contain enough truth, thus putting Moses in the category of not being able to obtain enlightened thought. Next, in comparison to the European Enlightenment, the Haskalah is very different, even though it emerged because of the Enlightenment. The European Enlightenment held faith in the power of human reason to illuminate the world, rather than divine revelation. It encouraged an attitude of critical reflection, rather than an acceptance of received wisdom. Also, the Enlightenment was in sync with the Scientific Revolution in the early 1770’s and created the concept that science is a form of knowledge (Western Civilizations). In contrast, Moses affirmed that the best state was one whose members were able to govern themselves through education, and it was through religious institutions that are most capable of providing such education. This thinking is completely opposite of the Enlightenment, because their goal was to forget about religious teachings, and only learn from science, and other forms of confirmed reason. Another example that is contrasted to the Enlightenment is when Moses pleaded that a general disquisition on â€Å"science† had no place in a commentary on Creation. Members of the Enlightenment used the theory of evolution to explain the creation of the universe, which is all based on science. Also, using Wolffian beliefs, Mendelssohn asserted that although things might look accidental to man, to God they are all necessary, implying that everything on Earth happens for a reason. Again, this is not in accord with the Enlightenment philosophy because they do not refer to a God creating the future of the world, instead they sought evidence and valid truths to prove their beliefs that all is created through science and man labor. Interestingly, there are similarities between Moses Mendelssohn and Immanuel Kant, who was a key figure of the European Enlightenment. Moses became a member of Wednesday Society, which was devoted to political subjects. He often gave lectures; his most common lecture was â€Å"What is enlightenment? Similarly, Immanuel Kant became known by answering the question: What is Enlightenment? † written as a response to the Reverend Zollner. Kant also proposed to eliminate certain church and state restrictions, just as Moses did in Jerusalem. Although a huge difference is Kant believed religion infringed on one’s ability to full reason, while Moses saw religion, specifically Judaism as an integral part of the Haskalah, it is important to notice the comparisons between the two, especially since they are regarded as holding such different ideologies (Perspectives on the Past). Overall, Moses Mendelssohn was a principal figure in the creation of the Haskalah. He was a model Jew, and made many contributions to Jewish life during the end of the eighteenth century. After reading the novel, Moses Mendelssohn and the Religious Enlightenment, I now have a better understanding and respect for Moses Mendelssohn and the Haskalah. David Sorkin succeeded in providing information that accurately describes Moses’ philosophical works and showed how Moses made the German Enlightenment compatible with Judaism.

The Family Album: Questioning Memory.

The Family Album: Questioning Memory. â€Å"After 17 years I’m back in Shanghai and all along, my memory has been playing tricks† (Otsuka, 2006:33). Why do we take images for family albums? We take them to remember people as they were. Traditionally in portrait photography, it has been a point of argument whether a photograph can or cannot reveal the true sense of a person, their personality or inner self. To me the photograph is merely surface – a likeness -, it is what the photographer or archivist wants to be seen, and holds no deeper resonance.In addition, not only do we want to remember, we want to acknowledge our existence, and in the future, be ourselves remembered as an essential part of the family unit. It is not only about belonging, but about leaving a trace of ourselves that will be around long after we are gone: photographs are tokens of immortality. The family album both represents what has to be continued and perpetuates the myth of the ‘happ y family’, which can be construed in multiple ways depending on the viewer and their motives.The portrayal of the ‘happy family’ is dependent on the various stages of editing – the photographer decides who is included or left out, tells the subjects where to stand or sit, and when to say â€Å"Cheese! † The collator then decides which photographs are worthy of going into the album and which will be left in a box, or thrown away. The editing and archiving follow perceived ideologies of family history, reflecting the editor’s own purpose and personal viewpoint. Claire Grey believes that history is always a personal account (Holland Spence, 1991: 108).But do these photos help us remember or do they alter or replace the real memories of what happened and who the people in the photos really were? In this essay, I will attempt to explain why I believe that the memories imbedded in the family album are constructs, falsehoods. I am going to look at i mages from six photographers as well as my own family albums to ascertain the accuracy of memory generated by image. In looking at a family album, do I take other people’s and family member’s recollections and apply them to my own history?Collective memory can twist the truth and often construct altered variations. As stories pass from one generation to the next, they are prone to fabrication and exaggeration. Lorie Novak states, â€Å"Our own images are often tied up in family legend with conversations about family photographs frequently accompanied by embellishment and invention. Photographs and the narratives they inspire can become substitutes for memories of actual events† (Hirsch, 1999: 26-27).She also wondered whether the information omitted from her own family album shaped her memories and studied this concept in her work (Hirsch, 1999: 15). Maybe this is the same for Ingrid Hesling, who, at the age of 16, found out that she was adopted – I wonder if this new information changed her memories or merely her perception of her memories: it would appear those that were once fond became bitter. She questioned her entire childhood leading her to create work using a combination of old family photos, text and her own contemporary images.Her work is an investigation into how memory can be altered depending on how you relate to the history behind it and the images documenting it. Analysing Numbers (Figure 1), the eye is drawn immediately to the smiling child clutching her toys, an image taken from the family album, then to the accompanying photo, and finally to its contents, the numbers – which symbolically do not reach 16 – and the text. The emptiness behind the child and the distance between her and the numbers – enhanced by the strong horizontals – metaphorically represents the separation from the truth.The child and toys have connotations of family, comfort and home, whereas, the numbers suggest conformi ty, lack of individuality and belonging, – being a number without identity. The subject matter is not immediately obvious until the text (both within and out of the image) is included. The initial impression of happiness is underscored and then submerged by a sense of unease, of anger and of betrayal. The original photo should evoke happiness but the viewer becomes disturbed when the opposite occurs. Is this family image therefore a fabrication, just because the way we see the memory has changed?Were things left out of the Hesling family album images in order to conceal the truth from her? In my own work, I use the family album aesthetic frequently. I seek out, analyse old family photographs, and try to apply them to my work. It fascinates me when I find images of myself as a child that I have never encountered before. I automatically try to locate any memories associated with the image, despite the fact that they do not exist for me, as I was too young, and attempt to rememb er stories I may have been told about the photograph.But this is not a true memory – it is assimilated from my family’s collective memory. Jo Spence said that searching for memories within family photographs, was impossible (Holland Spence, 1991:203). Trish Morrissey is a photographer who looks at ‘the family album as fiction’, carefully constructing the conventions and cliches of the domestic snap shot; thus, courting reality by the act of staging. In this way she has created a generic family album, to which anyone can relate: her family album has become everybody’s family album and countless others now share the memories.Anne McNeill states in her essay on Morrissey’s work that the images in the ‘shoe box’ are not the ‘official’ history of the family, but â€Å"the ones that got away† (Morrissey, 2004:23). This is an interesting concept, in that the family deem some images more important than others: ‘ proper’ images are displayed on top of the TV or framed for the wall, whereas the pictures that could be perceived as being more ‘real’, of everyday life, are put away in a box or packet to be perused at times of reminiscence.I am attracted to Morrissey’s work because of the questioning nature of her images. In September 20th, 1985 (Figure 2), with her sister in the other role, she meticulously recreates the original connection between the subjects as well as the peripheral details. However, in contrast to most family photos, the people in her images rarely smile, forcing the viewer to concentrate on the gestures and body language and use them to interpret and reveal hidden tensions between family members. Such underlying tensions tell more of the history and context than smiling faces.Staging allows the viewer to witness Morrissey in the act of constructing photographic meaning. Colour draws the eye to the teenage subject, her expression, and then to the contrasting expression of the older woman. The title includes the date – confirmed by the style and fashion – however as it is known that the images are reconstructed and were taken more recently than the title states, this inclusion generates more questions than answers. She questions the truth of the family album. Her images constructed as generic examples, using, and according to, her memories and the original photos.But how accurately can these be recreated when personal memory and current emotions are present? The reconstruction becomes a new history of her and her sister. Then we realise it is, and always has been, about her relationship with her sister, and this in turn, makes the viewer question the validity of all family album images: the allusion to unacknowledged family tension and the fallacy of the ‘happy family’. She questions the legitimacy of the entire tradition of the family album. Tim Roda is another artist who recreates personal histori es using his memories.Roda uses his family to recreate definitive life-changing memories and moments from his life: his son assumes his childhood role and he becomes his father. This strikes a chord with me as my current work revolves around the ideas of role reversal – child becoming adult and vice versa. Roda’s Untitled (Figure 3) initially caused me confusion and distress, as if a still from a horror film: it is dark, shadowy, and menacing. It is obviously and unapologetically staged, but why? It makes me ask questions. What is it about?It is a narrative, but is it fact or fiction? The camera is used to record a moment in time that balances between memories and constructed commentaries, yet it is a documentation of real events for the people taking part in the image making. Although his family are the immediate subjects, the work is filled with metaphorical reverberations of family history and childhood memories. Initially the composition leads the viewer to the man . What is he doing? Then the attention is drawn to the child with sharp shears, then to the birds hanging from the ceiling.These birds give a context to the image and place it somewhere that is recognisable. The man appears to have been hunting and is subsequently preparing the animal for cooking. The scene suggests that that they are country people, perhaps poor and living off the land: the father now teaching the boy by passing on traditions and skills. But is this a true memory or a corrupt, idealised memory? How much of it has been exaggerated or changed from the reality of the past? How would we know? Miyako Ishiuchi, in contrast, photographed her late mother’s belongings.She never got on with her mother but was distraught at her death, leading her to create a series of images as a memorial and tribute: a catalogue of personal belongings, objectified in the images, but subjectified in the photographer’s mind. In this way Ishiuchi sought to create an emotional conn ection, a sense of personal closeness and history, she never had when her mother was alive. The image is slightly off centre: does this reflect the true relationship? Despite this, the images remain clinical and objective: the daughter becoming the photographer and archivist of her mother’s possessions, using them to create a pseudo family album.Although Figure 4, an image from the Mother’s’ Series, is skeletal and ghostly, its forensic detail alluding to death, it is very simple and beautiful, with connotations of family love and loss – in some ways a memento mori. It is aesthetically pleasing, like still life, but ‘still death’. The image is deeply personal and yet it holds universal meaning. She strives to seize a point of contact between the past and present. The meaning of this single image is not obvious when viewed on its own, however becomes clearer when viewed with the others in the series.It is a highly emotive collection of images, reminding me of my own mother’s death, my relationship with her and how I dealt with her possessions and my memories of her after she died. One of my favourite photographers of the moment is Chino Otsuka. She has approached the questioning of the family album image in a new and unique way. At first glance, 1976 and 2005, Kakamura, Japan (Figure 8) appears to be an actual family album photograph, perhaps of a mother and daughter, maybe a holiday snap. However, once you are made aware of the digital alteration, it becomes much more interesting and poses many questions about the context.Otsuka includes verses in her book, which help to explain her intentions: â€Å"One by one, I retrieve fragments of memories and paste them all together† (Otsuka, 2006:37). This has double meaning: the ‘pasting’ both psychological as well as physical. The final image is a construct both as a photograph and as a memory. At first glance, she could be taken for the child’ s mother, sister, or aunt. It makes me question familial roles and place within the family. She has created time travel: â€Å"Past becomes present, the present becomes the future, back and forth, travelling in time† (Otsuka, 006:31). This makes us question, if we could go back, what would we do, say or change? In actuality Otsuka photographed herself in 2005, replicating the correct light conditions, and then digitally compositing the new image next to herself as a child. The original image was perfectly symmetrical, with the child in the centre. The addition of the adult shifts the balance. But what balance has changed? Is it merely the symmetry or is it rather the balance of power and control? Here because the adult and child are the same person, the family album becomes a mockery.She speaks of memory, â€Å"Until I look for it, it will hide forever [†¦] Just when I have forgotten it, it comes into sight and when I finally catch it I realise how much of it has escape d† (Otsuka, 2006:39). She is questioning her own memory and realising her memory lies to her. Even the recreation of the memory will eventually be corrupted. Here she categorically states that nothing can be received at face value. The apparent truth may in fact be corrupt, but to accentuate her belief in this dishonesty she has tainted it further.She may in fact remember the original memory but has replaced it with a falsehood. This event never happened, could never happen, it is an impossibility: a visual paradox. As my attention is drawn first to the child, then the woman, then the shadows, I seem to be searching for a reason to disprove the truth of this image. Why is the knowledge that it is fake not enough? Am I still so programmed to accept the photograph as truth, that I must find proof that the photograph is a lie? How then do these photographers’ interpretations of the family album reflect in my response to the images in my own?Through family photos, I place m yself within my family’s history. If they, as I believe, mean nothing, then how does that in turn affect how I view my history and my memories? ‘Christmas’ (Figure 9) was taken at my father’s parents flat in Glasgow, in1972. It is not unusual in any way. It does not differ greatly from other family album images. In fact, the majority of families have very similar images in their collections. I, at three years old, stand between my grandparents, seemingly being presented to the camera, with my mother and father (and the dog) at the back.My father, an amateur photographer, would have proudly taken the photo using the self-timer, explaining the not-quite perfect stance of the subjects. I assume it is an individual image, and not part of a series, although through the nature of editing – as spoken about previously -, other images, taken at the same time, may have been discarded or lost. This means that I am unable to build a picture of the whole holiday : it is merely a captured moment in time. My eye is first drawn to myself, perhaps looking for recognition, then to my Grandparents and my mother – all three of whom are now dead -, then to my father.The image was taken in the tradition of family portraiture to commemorate the family being together (our family lived abroad and only visited Scotland occasionally). You would expect this to be a happy time, however, my grandfather and I – who reputedly enjoyed and sought out being photographed – are noticeably uncomfortable. On closer inspection, I can see that we are not in fact the happy family my father wished to depict. It reminds me of Trish Morrissey’s work, where the tensions between family members are apparent despite the fake smiles attempting to cover up the real feelings.However, this image was intended only for family viewing, so why the faking? All the people in this picture will have been aware of the reality. Who are they faking for? I presume it can only be the tradition of smiling for the camera and a subconscious conveyance to future generations of family and friends that we were the archetypal ‘happy family’. Certain things in the image trigger my sensory memory, such as the material of the seat, the curtains and carpet, but I have no visual memory of this time.Roland Barthes wrote about his sensory memory being triggered by an image: â€Å"[my mother] is hugging me, a child, against her; I can waken in myself the rumpled softness of her crepe de chine and the perfume of her rice powder† (Barthes, 1982: 65). I found an image of myself aged six that I had previously not seen, and although I do not remember the photograph being taken, I do recall the texture, colour and smell of my dress, and associated images of my Mother leaning over the sewing machine making it. Are all these fake memories?Even if I cross-referenced with someone else that was there, their memory would be different as it is as per sonal to them as my memories are to me. To me this is the truth, as it is all I have. Is it better to have some believed memory, no matter how untruthful, than no memory at all? Looking to my own, more recent, family album images I have noticed that the family album has recently begun to change in style and content, partially due to the onset of digital cameras and computers. It is no longer merely portraiture but also has a documentary style. Gone are the formal (or informal) posed portraits of individuals and family groups.People now take more pictures of their friends and family candidly, when the subject is unaware of the image being taken. These may not be intended for the ‘official’ family album, but are most family’s more personal ‘shoe box’ pictures. This raises the question of whether the memories associated with these images are related to differently by both the photographer and the subject. Are these recalled memories more ‘realâ₠¬â„¢ than formal, posed images? As photography changes in our digital and computer based society, so does the way we take, edit and construct images for the family album.There are now fewer mistakes made when taking images. Only a few years ago, films were shot and printed, and all the images were kept, even the mistakes (cut off heads, fingers in shot, badly exposed, etc), whereas, now, with digital technology, the editing is done in camera. The ‘bad’ or unacceptable shots are deleted and re-shot before printing (if they are printed at all). There is now also a mass profusion of images, whereas before, due to cost of film and printing, families were more selective with their image taking, and consequently saved every image, however ‘bad’.Images now, are more likely to be kept on disc, losing the tactile quality we associate with photographs. The family album is becoming no longer a literal book of images. They are spread throughout cyberspace on social net working sites. Has this given the family album less value? Certainly the extended family can now have instant access to the family album, but are they really interested in any other images but their own? Why do we insist on sharing our most personal family moments with anyone and everyone?Again, I think it is about portraying the ‘perfect, happy family’ as well as spreading our immortality as far and wide as possible before we die. These modern methods of image dissemination negate the importance and relevance of the family album as a historical document, and we cynically become blase about images in general. In Umberto Eco’s book, The Mysterious Flame of Queen Loana, the protagonist is struck with almost complete memory loss, and in attempting to reconstruct his personal history, he comes to realise that he cannot rely on other people’s remembrances.He is shown a photograph of his parents, and states, â€Å"You tell me that these two were my parents, so now I know, but it’s a memory that you have given me. I’ll remember the photo from now on, but not them† (Eco, 2005: 24). He then retreats to his old family home and spends all his time in the attic, attempting to regain his memories, but only discovers that memory once lost cannot be regained, merely re-learnt: â€Å"Our memory is never fully ‘ours’, nor are the pictures ever unmediated representations of our past. [†¦ we both construct a fantastic past and set out on a detective trail to find other versions of a ‘real’ one† (Hirsch, 1997: 14). Similarly, Mier Joel Wigoder speaks of placing this photograph (Figure 12) of his father and grandfather on his desk, in place of an image of himself and his father that never existed. It is not his memory as he was not there, but it is a memory he wishes he had. He has invented a memory (or a fantasy? ) for himself based on a photograph taken before he was born. However, it is possib le that all memories are created in this way.I have looked at other people’s family photos and used them to prompt my own memories of similar times, places and people. As Heather Cameron says, â€Å"Our memory [†¦ ] is a constant process of writing and rewriting, crossing out, overlapping images and distortion. It shifts and flows and moves without a fixed foundation† (Cameron, 2002:6). Nan Goldin believed that by taking photos of her friends and family, she would be able to retain her own memories of them and not be influenced by the memories of others (Goldin, 1986:9), but even in her candid style that seems impossible. Annette Kuhn states, â€Å"Family photographs are supposed [†¦ to evoke memories that might have little or nothing to do with what is actually in the picture. The photograph is a prop, a prompt, a pre-text [†¦ ] but if a photograph is somewhat contingent in the process of memory production, what is the status of the memories actually p roduced? † (Kuhn, 2002: 13). When I recall some memory or look at old photos of myself when I was young, I could just as easily be remembering a particular thing because my Mother had related it to me when she was alive. However, I may be seeing these memories through rose tinted glasses, editing out the bad times before I can recall them.Personal family photos are not the only ones to generate an emotional response, and photographers such as Morrissey use this to effect. September 20th, 1985 (Figure 2) elicits an emotional response in me, making me laugh by triggering my own personal memories, remembrance of my own family album images and experiences: creating a transferrable memory. Everyone has some images similar to this in their collection. It makes us reassess our own memories and question them. The family album forms the basis of a pictorially gilded game of Chinese Whispers, as family stories and histories are passed down the generations.Memory is ever changing depende nt on the viewer or narrator’s state of mind and intentions, and these stories, intentionally or not, become distorted, exaggerated or even fabricated. This is not memory – it is learning, and the learning gradually replaces the real memory until, finally, it is completely lost in the past and the faked history becomes legend. Everything is not always as it seems in the family album. Smiles are often faked (even in unhappy, tense situations), and everyday tensions and power struggles between family members are hidden, the very act of taking a posed photograph is essentially faking the memory at its conception.Thus family albums can be seen as fiction, a subjective story rather than, if there is such a thing, an objective history. The photograph can merely show what was in front of it at a specific moment in time, but the mind takes this information and runs with it, creating stories around the image – â€Å"In short, to remember is to reconstruct, in part on th e basis of what we have learned or said since† (Eco, 2005: 25). ———————– Figure 2: Morrissey, T. 2004. September 20th, 1985. Figure 3: RODA, T. 2004. Untitled.Figure 4: ISHIUCHI, M. 2002. (‘Mother’s’ Series). Figure 7: ISHIUCHI, M. 2002. Mother’s #24. Figure 8: OTSUKA, C. 2005. 1976 and 2005, Kakamura, Japan. Figure 9: PIPE FAMILY ALBUM. 1972. Christmas Figure 12: WIGODER FAMILY ALBUM. 1942. Louis and Geoffrey Wigoder walking down Westmoreland St, Dublin, 1942. Figure 1: HESLING, I. 2000. Numbers. Figure 11: BEST FAMILY ALBUM. 2008. Untitled. Figure 6: ISHIUCHI, M. 2002. Mother’s #33 Figure 5: ISHIUCHI, M. 2001. Mother’s #55 Figure 10: BEST FAMILY ALBUM. 2007. Untitled. ———————– 3

Ancient Chinese Armor of the Qin Dynasty